Students' attitudes to computers are shown to change after having access to one computer per two students in the class. However, the benefits of unlimited access can be limited by inadequate preparation.
COMPUTER IMMERSION IN A GRADE 5/6 CLASSROOM:
KEY QUESTIONS AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES
DON JORDAN WOODBRIDGE DISTRICT HIGH SCHOOL, TASMANIA
Reflections after a year’s experiment of total computer immersion.
BACKGROUND
Information technology had already been part of the secondary curriculum at our school, which has a fully equipped computer laboratory and CD-ROM facilities in the library, although the younger students had more limited access to computers.
Following a decision by the principal to extend the use of computers down to the middle school students of Grade 5 and 6, a computer immersion program was introduced into my composite 5/6 class in 1994. A sufficient number of second hand computers, including some laptops, were purchased from local businesses to provide one computer per two students (with 18 computers to 26 students, we were able to keep a one-to-two ratio even with the occasional computer-breakdown). The Grade 5/6 students also had limited access to the computer lab which included the more advanced windows software packages.
CONTEXT
The class comprised 26 students (12 boys, 14 girls) aged 10–12 years. The curriculum was structured to allow for individual abilities and strengths, so that within the same topic, different needs were met and achievements recognised. Opportunities were given for students to organise their day, within a set framework of activities. Work contracts were set each day, week, month, and term, to allow for individual or group initiatives, in their use of class time. The classroom was open to and extended into the corridor, giving students a degree of freedom concerning their work location.
OBJECTIVES OF THE IMMERSION PROGRAM
To build on the perceived natural interest and enthusiasm of the students to use computers.
To give each of the students the opportunity to develop and/or improve their computing skills.
To integrate the use of the computer as a tool in the day-to-day curriculum.
To foster independent learning skills.
To encourage the students to share and assist each other’s learning by working co-operatively to achieve desired outcomes.
To give access to a programming language.
THE TEACHER’S PRE-REQUISITES
It was necessary for me to have basic understanding of computers and the programs being used before the program began. This meant I could provide initial instruction to the students; deal with problems arising with the hardware and software; and above all, to understand the ways in which the computer could contribute to all areas of the curriculum. By knowing a little, I could encourage the students (through probing and questioning) to draw on the full potential of computer technology.
It was not long before the skills and knowledge of some students (perhaps due to knowledgeable parents or regular access to computers at home) began to far outstrip mine. I was comfortable with that and was more than willing to facilitate their progress. With encouragement these students benefited by building self-esteem through using their expertise to help other students. The composite class, with its wider range of student abilities, offered many opportunities for peer tutoring.
CURRICULUM CHANGES TO ACCOMMODATE COMPUTER IMMERSION
A common approach in primary school classes which have a single computer has been to base the curriculum around a particular software package (for example Granny’s Garden, Flowers of Crystal, Dred Dragon Droon). Students tend to work in pairs or groups, spending approximately 20 percent of classroom time working through a stage of the program, and 80 percent of their time in off-computer work, on related activities across the curriculum (for example, art, drama, maths, science). Another approach is to “slot” in a drill and practise package to support traditional teaching (for example, Speed Maths or Super Spell).
The computer immersion program described here moved beyond the exclusive use of a specialised program. The software package used was Logo Writer, which includes sequenced work booklets which guide students through programming activities as well as a word processing facility. This formed the basis of the classroom language program by allowing the exploration of the various genre, for example, narrative, direction, instruction, poetry, recipes, reports.
CLASSROOM CHANGES
Special tables needed to be purchased, large enough to accommodate combinations of two or four students and computers; curtains to minimise glare on screens were hung; new electrical wiring had to be installed. Computer time was usually shared as arranged, between the pairs. Computer activity could either be together or one at a time whilst the other partner went on with “off-computer” curriculum activities.
INTRODUCING THE SOFTWARE
Although the teacher provided instruction in the use of the package, a form of cascade training quickly established itself due to the presence in the class of students (eight of the boys) who had been introduced to the computers and the software on a smaller scale during the previous year. I have no data about home access to computers but the eight boys made active use of the facilities available in the classroom the previous year while none of the girls in the group described in this paper had done so. Within the co-operative ethos of the class these more capable boys were able to pass on their expertise in the use of both the software and hardware very quickly. The activity of teaching others reinforced both the knowledge and the confidence of the “expert” boys. One of them displayed weak academic skills but the recognition of his computer expertise considerably boosted his self-esteem.
However, the peer-teaching approach worked less well for the girls. At the end of the previous year, a discussion had been held with the students to explain about the planned computer immersion program. At this stage, all the girls had been definite in their opposition to the idea, based on their previous experience in a class with one or two computers. They said that they had felt intimidated by the “superior knowledge” of the boys, and embarrassed to use computers because the boys would “interfere” by showing them what to do. Moreover, they complained that computer time was allocated disproportionately to the same group of students, mainly boys. Access to computers seemed, to them, to be granted as a reward for good behaviour or for rapid completion of class work and as a means of keeping troublesome students (again, mainly boys) busy.
Although the number of computers in the new class made it unnecessary for any of the girls to share with the boys, they were reluctant to start using their computers. As time went on and they realised that they could work at their own pace away from the interest of the boys, they began to take risks and experiment. This more enthusiastic stage did not last, and most of the girls did not use their computers unless prompted by the teacher.
ACADEMIC PROGRESS AND STUDENT CONFIDENCE
The girls were generally neater in their handwritten presentation of work than most of the boys and derived kudos from this fact. Computer printouts eliminated this advantage and, in contrast, gave these boys the advantage due to their greater computer knowledge and skills.
The attitude of reluctant writers, mainly boys, was considerably enhanced by the opportunity to redraft their text on screen, which enabled them to focus on content rather than presentation. Moreover, because the presentation of the printed text was of a higher standard than their handwritten attempts, they avoided unfavourable comparisons with neater writers, mainly girls. Handwriting lessons were specifically held each day, however these exercises lacked the context necessary to improve or even maintain their handwriting skill as authoring activities were carried out on the computer screen.
The classroom computers were not equipped with spell checkers. Redrafting, both of content and spelling, was encouraged and supported by conferencing. Although most students preferred using a hard copy, more limited access to printers meant that sometimes the latest version was only available to view on screen. Not all of the computers had a hard drive, and work was sometimes “lost” because of disk “crash”, damage or loss. Teacher and student frustration when disks failed was common. Some teacher time was spent troubleshooting because of break downs and user-error.
A different classroom methodology and teacher organisation was required to ensure accountability. It was impossible to keep up with each piece of work produced by the students and self monitoring was reinforced through a system of check lists. Students were expected to provide a regular sample of their written work in each of the genres. In addition, students chose a piece of their work in each genre for publication and display. There was an expectation that published work was their best effort. Displays consisted of both printed and non-printed contributions.
Most of the boys were competent and capable of using the available computer equipment and the software. However their wordprocessing skills were beyond the sophistication of the software package—they had become used to the windows facilities which were available on the software in the computer lab. The logo function maintained its challenge for the boys however, as they were able to make creative adaptations to it.
Due to their earlier bad experiences (as outlined above) the girls were less inclined to use the computers, and less inclined when they did use them to take risks. They therefore did not achieve such a high level of competence or show much confidence when using the computers. In fact, as stated above, they were reluctant to use Logo Writer and preferred to write out their work by hand.
The inadequacies of the equipment and software soon became evident, especially to the small number of both boys and girls who had access to windows software at home. The amount of teacher time needed to assist with software instruction as well as dealing with failing hardware was considerable. Luckily, as these students move up to Grades 7–10, their continued access to computers via the school’s computer lab will be assured.
REFLECTIONS ON COMPUTER IMMERSION
The year’s involvement led me to reflect on some of key management issues arising from the computer immersion program.
STAFF DEVELOPMENT
A basic understanding of computers and programs used in classrooms is essential, if teachers are to provide initial instruction to the students, deal with problems arising, achieve the objectives set across the curriculum and, above all, ensure that students get the full benefits of the technology available. Retraining may be required whenever computers or software are upgraded.
However, mastering the technology is the easy part. It is the transfer of the knowledge, skills and methodology associated with each subject area and the transfer of the teacher’s program, method and style, into a learning environment using computers which will make the heaviest demands on the school’s time and resources. My experience in schools has shown that often the introduction of new equipment without appropriate considerations of staff training can lead to negative teacher attitudes and therefore inadequate use of the equipment and, at worst, to its being discarded completely. The use of computer hardware and software is no exception.
A school embarking on computer immersion will need to select equipment and software to suit the objectives for which the computers have been introduced. It will need to fund and manage the periodic upgrading of computers and software throughout the school. Where updating results in different machines in the school or even within the same class, this will make additional demands on the class teacher and on the school’s computer experts in terms of set-up and troubleshooting. Compatibility between different generations of equipment is a crucial issue.
FOSTERING NEW LEARNING STRATEGIES
Computers provide access to a mass of information, which cannot be selected or controlled by teachers. It is therefore important that teachers help students develop their critical faculties, by encouraging them to question, probe, and challenge the information and its sources, as well as consulting alternative sources (books, media, and individuals). This should encourage students to increasingly select, interpret, and analyse available information for a range of purposes, rather than simply reproducing information for its own sake.
Equally, collecting students’ work for marking is difficult unless printouts are readily available. Therefore teachers and students need to devise and respect a system of record keeping. For example, student accountability can be reinforced through a system of check lists and by requiring them to provide a regular sample of their work in progress for discussion. In addition, they can submit completed work for publication through display.
SELECTING LEARNING MATERIALS
The software and associated learning materials must be appropriate to the curriculum, to the students’ needs, and to the equipment. To what extent do existing learning materials have to be adapted for computer access? Will CD-ROMs supplant textbooks? Will the students have access to a sufficiently wide range to provide a balanced world view?
PROMOTING USE OF THE EQUIPMENT
Given that society is rapidly and fundamentally changing in its structure, more and more parents have an expectation that their children will be introduced to computer literacy at school. Teachers need to learn how to best introduce students to, and encourage and support their use of, the computers. Some assistance may be available from students who have already developed expertise, possibly at home. Peer tutoring reinforces both the knowledge and the confidence of the “experts”, who may not necessarily be leaders in other curriculum areas.
SAFEGUARDING STUDENTS’ WORK
Computer files are potentially more vulnerable to loss and damage than handwritten work. Technical failures, as well as human error, can lead to breakdowns, loss of data and considerable frustration. If students are going to produce the majority of their work on computers, a reliable system for backing up and storing the work is essential.
MANAGING INEQUALITY
Differences in perception, access, and level of confidence affect not only the extent to which different students use computers but also the way in which they use them. If we legitimise and formalise the computer immersion program as the prime vehicle of learning, we need to find ways to minimise the discrepancy between those pupils who have access to home computers and those who don’t. By gradually, possibly unconsciously, basing their classwork and homework demands on performance of the former, teachers will place unacceptable pressure on those students who only have access to computers at school and who are always catching up and are unable to achieve the satisfaction and praise available to the advantaged group. Some compensation may be achieved by timetabling different degrees of access to computers, but this may be seen as unfair and undermine the classroom ethos. Moreover, unless schools are able to update equipment and software regularly, there could be a growing discrepancy between home and school equipment which could create incompatibilities and disaffection on the part of some students.
BREAKDOWN, SECURITY AND VANDALISM
If the computer is the means whereby students carry out the majority of their work, the reliability or rapid repair of equipment is vital. This may make significant demands to the school’s financial and human resources.
Schools with limited supplies of computers are already vulnerable to theft and vandalism, whilst laptops lend themselves more readily to strong-room storage, the convenience of full-sized screens and keyboards may favour the purchase of desktop machines.
ACCOMMODATION
Equipment needs to be installed and positioned carefully, to avoid cables dangling dangerously, and to minimise the glare on screens. Work tops must accommodate not only the equipment, but also source books, notes and other papers which students need to consult in their work. Schools will need to balance the space advantages of a smaller laptop against the convenience of a full size monitor, keyboard and mouse. Needless to say, classroom size, and the number of students will influence these decisions.
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
What specific contribution will computer immersion make to teaching and learning?
– Many pupils are currently motivated to use computers, particularly where advanced graphics are involved, because of their association with games. Computers may also still have a novelty value, but what happens when this wears off or when the software available in schools is superseded by ever more exciting products?
– Computers can help students develop confidence and a willingness to learn through experimentation, because their errors can be easily, and privately, corrected, for example, through spell checkers. Within a single classroom, students can work at their own pace, on a range of activities whilst the teacher gives targeted support to individuals or groups.
– The appropriate software allows students to develop competence in a variety of skills: such as thinking, analysis, text processing, graphics, problem solving, fine motor skills. The expectation that students work in pairs underpins social development and co-operative work which has been shown to bring about significant cognitive and social benefits.
– Computers add value by enabling previous work to be reused or transformed for other purposes, for example, written work on different topics may be combined into a single newspaper, magazines requiring students to consider target readership, style, structure, layout and so forth, and addressing curriculum objectives in language as well as in art and design.
To what extent will the presence of expensive equipment in the classroom exert a pressure to use computers, even when there is no particular benefit?
– Will mastery of computers become an end rather than a means in the school curriculum, will students focus on perfecting keyboard skills or text layout, rather than on content?
– Will the computer be used for writing up work (mathematics or science experiments, for instance) simply because it is there?
– Which other knowledge and skills risk being neglected, for example, will handwriting be practised in context?
– What about those students who have the necessary skills, but choose not to use the computer because it offers them no “added value” in terms of creative presentation, for example, or because the available software does not allow them to use strategies such as mind mapping?
What happens to those who are computer illiterate? What is the relative importance of reading, number, or computer literacy? What constitutes the minimum acceptable level of computer literacy and what steps should schools take to ensure that all their students achieve this?
If computer immersion means that most of the students’ work is done on, or with the assistance of, the computer (that is, as an information source), what are the implications for homework? How should the teachers’ work and the classroom be structured to make appropriate use of computer immersion?
The priority given to each of these objectives will affect the choice of equipment and software (for example, appropriate packages for wordprocessing, desktop publishing, databases, and spreadsheets; the use of CD-ROMs; the use of e-mail and the Internet, including its location and management in the school).
CONCLUSION
Unlimited access to up-to-date computers and the associated links to the wider world considerably enhances a student’s learning experience and preparation for adult life. However, unless careful preparation is undertaken at all levels, the benefits of what constitutes a considerable investment may not be fully realised.
The computer immersion experiment was limited partly due to the age and inadequacy of the computers, but at least the students did have regular access. If more sophisticated (therefore possibly more interesting) equipment had been available then more of the girls may have been engaged. We may be able to test this out in the future, as the computer immersion program will continue in 1997, with newer equipment which will run Windows, and therefore be capable of offering desktop publishing software.
Whenever computers are used in a classroom, care needs to be taken to ensure that “expert” girls are on hand as peer teachers, both to counteract sexist modelling and to support the learning of the less experienced girls in a similar way to the boys.
The fact that the use by the girls seemed to dwindle in this class may mean that they did not see the computer as a useful tool to their learning. It may also indicate that they felt that their general work patterns and presentation skills did not benefit from the use of the limited application of the computers that were used in the immersion program.
According to Hoyles (see Notes), the use of the computer in education seems to be following the traditional lines of gender bias in society, defining computers preeminently as male machines. While girls and boys might show a similar appreciation of the significance computers might have for their personal futures, boys tend to be more positively disposed than girls towards computers, are more likely than girls to take optional computer courses in school, to report more frequent home use of computers, and tend to dominate the limited resources that are available in schools.
NOTES
DON JORDAN, M Ed, has taught for over 15 years, 10 of which as an Advanced Skills Teacher.
He can be contacted at 19 Lynden Road, Bonnet Hill, Taroona 7053, Tasmania. Fax: 03 62298716. E-mail: donjordan@trump.net.au
The issues surrounding the novelty value of computers are further discussed in:
Beynon, J. & Mackay, H. (1993). Computers in classrooms: More questions than answers. London: Falmer Press.
The cognitive and social benefits of social development and co-operative work which arise from working in pairs is discussed in:
Graves, N. & Graves, T. (1990). A part to play: Tips, techniques and tools for learning cooperatively. Victoria: Latitude Publications.
Hoyles, C. (Ed.). (1988). Girls and computers. Bedford Way Papers/34. London: University of London Institute of Education.
Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T. (1990). Social skills for successful group work. Educational Leadership, 47 (4), 29–33.
McGrath, H. & Noble, T. (1993). Different kids: Same classroom. Malaysia: Longman Cheshire.
Slavin, R. (1993). Cooperative learning in OECD countries: Research, practice, and prevalence. John Hopkins University: Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvantaged Students.
That society is rapidly changing in its structure hence the importance of acquiring basic computer literacy is argued in:
Rowe, H. (1993). Learning with personal computers. Melbourne: The Australian Council for Educational Research.
That the use of computers in education seems to follow a gender bias is noted in:
Hoyles, C. (Ed.) (1988), see above.
Suggestions for further reading include:
Anderson, B. (1995). IT use in education: Whose agenda, whose decisions? Computers in New Zealand schools, 7 (2), 25–28.
Koch, M. (1994). No girls allowed! Technos, 3 (3), 14–19.
Lai, K-W., & McMillan, B. (Eds.). (1992). Learning with computers: Issues and applications in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.
Ryba, K., & Selby, L. (1994). Gender and computers: Are girls really disadvantaged? Computers in New Zealand schools, 6 (1), 5–10.
Shears, L., (Ed). (1995). Computers and schools. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.
Spender, D. (1995). Nattering on the Net: Women power and cyberspace. Melbourne: Spinifex Press Pty Ltd.
Wagner, G. (1996). The beginner’s guide to the Internet. set: Research Information for Teachers, 2 (article 5).
Wiburg, K. (1995). Gender issues, personal characteristics and computing. The Computing Teachers, 22 (4), 7–10.